1.08+Mexico

= Mexico: The Taming of a Revolution =



I. Mexico After Independence 1. Broken Economy a. Mexican revolutions leave the country in disorder and decay. b. Spanish capital is removed and gold and silver mines fail as miners go off to war. c. Production plummets and textile industry falls. 2. Social Problems a. Very few jobs available, causing much unemployment (15% to 30% male population jobless). b. Social unrest sparked mass anger; people turn to criminal actions. c. Decree in 1820s expels Spaniards from Mexico, leaving a new Creole aristocracy – old traditional families and high professionals top the social hierarchy. d. Poverty persists among //campesinos// (country people) working in the agricultural sector on haciendas. 3. Politics a. Church controlled about ½ nation’s land with a firm alliance with the upper echelons (elites), earning income from real estate investments. b. Highly dominating military – presidency earned through military coup. c. Santa Anna, famous //caudillo// (military leader), and armed followers in mini armies seek national power and wealth. d. Caudillo politics predominate.

II. The North American Invasion 1. Viceroyalty of New Spain a. Covers territories from California, Colorado River Valley, and Texas. b. Jesuit followers set up network of missions throughout the highly unpopulated territory of New Spain. c. Stephen Austin settles in Texas and leads an insurrection against Mexican Santa Anna, establishing independence for the annexation of Texas to the U.S. (1845). 2. The Mexican-American War a. President James K. Polk sends American troops into disputed territory in Viceroyalty of New Spain. b. Mexico fought back as a result of the invasion, Santa Anna resisted until Mexicans were defeated. c. Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo ends war (Feb. 1848) and grants territory from Texas to California to the U.S.



III. Reform, Monarchy, and the Restored Republic 1. La Reforma a. Santa Anna removed from power (1855) after selling Mesilla Valley (Arizona & New Mexico) to U.S. b. Churches and civil institutions forced to give up unused land – sold to hacendados. c. Church and state separated – powers of registry (marriage, birth, etc.) go to the state and citizens are granted inalienable rights. 2. Monarchy a. Emperor Napoleon III of France places Ferdinand Maximilian von Hapsburg as emperor of Mexico. b. Maximilian declared freedom of the press and amnesty for political prisoners in order to appeal to the masses. c. Benito Juárez started civil war and other European problems lead Napoleon to abandon Maximilian – Max executed June 1867. 3. Restored Republic a. Juárez planned to modernize Mexico and ran for his 3rd and 4th terms in 1867 and 1871. b. Juárez promoted economic and educational reforms – dies of heart attack (1872). c. Sebastián Lerdo de Tejada succeeded presidency, but it overthrown by Porfirio Díaz who revolts and occupies Mexico Nov. 1876

IV. The Díaz Era: Progress at a Price 1. Maintaining Power a. Caudillos were given much leeway and encouraged that they fight each other. b. Built up the Mexican army. c. Relied on the Guardias Rurales (rural police) since the majority of Mexicans live in rural areas – establishing control of his position in Mexico. 2. Economic Development a. Opened land to speculators, ranchers, and elites for exploitation. b. Construction of railroads through foreign concessions, taken over by the state in 1907. c. Foreign trade – mineral exports (copper, zinc, silver, and gold) and industrialization involving textiles, cement, iron, etc. grew. 3. Social Structure a. No strong entrepreneurial class as most of the capital came from abroad. b. Wages re​mained low, drawing workers to protest and strike. c. Ruling highly concentrated in Mexico City, those who made political office were envied.

V. The Mexican Revolution and Institutionalizing a Revolution 1. Francisco I. Madero a. Heir to a family who established its fortune in cattle in mining. ii. Rise to Politics a. Strong liberal in economics and politics. A. Establish a democracy b. Enters the 1910 campaign as the Anti-Reelectionist candidate. c. Loses campaign and is jailed A. He gives famous //Plan de San Luis Potosi// that called for resistance against Diaz. iii. Rule a. Ruled for short time, due to conflicts with Emiliano Zapata A. Madero refuses to help the rural landowners gain back their possession b. Killed by his military chief of staff, Victoriano Huerta. 2. Emiliano Zapata a. Leader of pheasants in Morelos (southwestern state) b. Want land rights returned c. Killed in 1919 in an ambush by //carrancista// forces. 3. Victoriano Huerta i. The military advisor to Madero who assassinated him and took power a. Involved US ambassador Henry Lane Wilson, which would ensure the US influence in Mexican politics. A. Attempted to establish his power as an authoritarian ruler but met resistance, hence fueling a revolution. b. Resigned in 1914, following US intervention in Veracruz 4. Pancho Villa a. Led resistance movement in the northern state of Chihuahua. b. Ex-cattle rustler who put together an army c. Followers wanted work i. Movement a. Called for abolishment of haciendas and subsequent division into land plots. A. Plan finances Villa’s army; crops were sold for money that helped pay for supplies from the US and soldier’s wages 5. Venustiano Carranza a. Wealthy, elite landowner and governor of Coahuila ii. Influence a. //Plan de Guadalupe- //stated that Huerta gained his power using unlawful means. b. Following Huerta's resignation and failed negotiations with Villa and Zapata, Carranza set up his own regime in Veracruz. c. Calls for an informal improvement for the proletariat classes, and agrarian reform d. 1917, Carranza becomes president and begins drafting the Constitution (contains radical “socialist overtones” [p 268]). e. This event combined with his disregard for the “no-reelection” policy led to his overthrow by Obregon. 6. Alvaro Obregon i. Efforts a. World Recession affects Mexico, however a rural education campaign is still launched. b. Cautious regarding land redistribution, due to the fear of production loss. ii. Contributions to Stability a. Diplomatic recognition from the US in exchange for the fair treatment of US firms b. Peaceful transfer of power to his successor 7. Plutarco Elias Calles a. The successor to Obregon A. Held power over “puppet” rulers (1928-1934) b. Threat from //cristeros//, Catholics militants who viewed the revolution as “the work of the devil”. 8. Lazaro Cardenas i. Rule a. Following 1934 election, he sent Calles into exile. b. Distributed over 44 million acres of land to those without land c. Although Cardenas was popular and reinforced the “agrarian character” of the Revolution, his distribution was ultimately a failure d. Reestablish PRM party built around agricultural, labor, military and popular sectors e. Expropriation of US oil companies and establishment of PEMEX (//Petroleos Mexicanos//).

VI. Stability, Growth, and Rigidity A. Avila Camacho aimed land grants at individual families. He made Fidel Velazquez, an opponent of militant union leaders, the leader of the party's labor sector, making strikes difficult. The IMSS, Instituto Mexicano de Seguro Social was created. He supplied forces to the allies. He sent workers north to fill the gap left by the military draft. B. Miguel Aleman reorganized the national party (PRI). The peasant, worker, and popular made up the three sectors. He increased protection against imports and production 9.2% a year between 1948 and 1951. C. Ruiz Cortes saw that the peso was devalued from 8.65 pesos to the dollar to 12.5 pesos to the dollar in 1954 to encourage international buyers to look at Mexican goods. D. Lopez Mateos enacted a profit sharing plan to reduce strikes, instead of martial might, though they had and could suppress them. E. Diaz Ordaz managed the protests and riots of students. Economic growth from the Olympic Games increased maldistribution. F. Echeverria provided electricity and improving roads in rural areas. He tightened price controls on basic foodstuffs to pacify consumers in cities. He channeled resources (wages, land, and social services) to the poor. H. Portillo saw the discovery of vast oil reserves in Mexico. He resisted the urge to cash in on the newly found oil. The US government offered Mexico a rescue loan package, making Mexico reduce tariff barriers to stimulate greater industrial efficiency. I. Madrid began lowering and phasing out its tariffs and promoting its exports, especially non petroleum exports. Investment plummeted, unemployment increased, and per capita income declined by more than 9%. J. Salinas, successor to Madrid, demonstrated political authority by naming a cabinet dominated by his personal associates. In the mid-1990s the economy picked up; inflation moved down to the 20 and 30 percent range and annual growth rates for the GDP rose.

VII. North American Free Trade A.The Salinas administration in June 1990 negotiated a free trade compact with the US. The proposal entailed a total repudiation of the protectionist strategies of import-substituting industrialization. In August 1992, NAFTA created a three-nation partnership (US, Mexico, and Canada), eliminating duties, tariffs, and trade barriers over a period of fifteen years.

VIII. Twilight of the Technocrats? 1. January 1, 1994, after NAFTA went into effect, a guerilla movement in Chiapos rose up to denounce the free trade accord, the //Salinista// economic model and the under democratic character of the political regiment. a. EZLN, captured national and international attention during the highly publicized negotiations with governmental authorities. Although there were a variety of governmental responses, the Zapatista Movement became a continual problem. 2. Two months later, Luis Donald Colozio, Salinas’ handpicked successor and candidate of the PRI, was shot down by an assassin. A new nominee named Ernesto Zedillo Ponce de Leon was hastily chosen. a. He hurried to develop a critical campaign for the upcoming election which caused a blow to Mexico’s international image. b. Zedillo won the presidency without ever holding prior elective office and immediately had economic crisis. Investors withdrew $10 billion from Mexico within a week. Clinton then put together a package of nearly $50 billion, including $20 billion from the US government. One major goal of Clinton’s, was to head off potential default on $30 billion which would have greatly affected the US. The second to sustain the credibility of economic reform and the viability of NAFTA itself. c. Due to economic problems, a political crisis soon ensued. Salinas, who once supported Ponce, publically criticized him for mishandling the devaluation of the peso. The fighting between the two was frowned upon by the public. In 1996, it was ruled that the next presidential candidate was required to have held elective office. A former congressman proclaimed, “This is the end of government by technocracy, thank goodness.”

IX. Dawn of a New Era 1. The 2000 presidential election, involving Francisco Labastida (PRI), Cuauhtemoc Cardenas (PRD), and new comer Vincent Fox (conservative PAN) marked a watershed in Mexican politics. a. Fox said the PAR was corrupt and obsolete. He pledged an honest government and promised to lead Mexico in a new modern and democratic era. Fox won the presidency, earning 42.5% of the vote, and his new challenge was to reconcile modern and traditional. b. When Mexico’s relationship with the US became more complex, Bush and Fox established a positive connection. Fox pushed for immigration reform but after September 11, reform was unthinkable. c. As Mexico moved toward the 21st century, three challenges arose.

Credits: Dylan (I-IV) & Visuals Tess (V) Neal (VI-VII) Adonai (VIII-IX)

=** Major Events From 1880-1920 **=

I. The Age of General Porfirio Díaz A. In 1867 General Porfirio Diaz seized power from Juarez's liberal successors. 1. General Diaz effectively governed Mexico until the Revolution of 1910 as president, except from 1880-84, during which Manuel Gonzalez was in office. B. A new Mexico emerged - Diaz established order and a workable government. 1. Civil wars ceased and banditry disappeared from the countryside. 2. Provincial governors obeyed laws emanating from Mexico City. 3. The army became professionalized. 4. The "Rurales" maintained order throughout the country. 5. General Diaz and a group of wealthy intellectuals adopted French positivism as a national creed. C. Foreign investment rushed in to take advantage of the new political and economic climates. 1. This revived mining and created major oil fields. 2. Exports and national income increased and new industries dotted the countryside. 3. Formerly despised for its backwardness, Mexico became the model for much of the developing world. D. Economic growth caused unrest. 1. The urban and rural masses remained impoverished. 2. Mexicans of all classes hated the increasing foreign economic dominance. 3. Younger generation came to resent the 30 year dominance exercised by Diaz. II. The Revolution - 1910 A. The main cause of the revolt was Diaz's monopoly of political power. 1. Two major strikes in Mexico, one against the Cananea Copper Company in Sonora and the second at the Rio Blanco textile mills in Veracruz, created national political discontent. 2. Serious financial troubles disrupted the last years of the Diaz dictatorship. B. An opposition formed around a northern landowner, Francisco I. Madero, who had the time, resources and contacts to organize an effective political campaign. 1. Madero's slogan was " Effective Suffrage and no Reelection". 2. However, Diaz rigged the election and Madero lead a revolt that spread rapidly throughout the nation. 3. The Diaz military dictatorship collapsed and Diaz had to flee the country. C. Madero's Rule was ineffective. 1. Madero advocated neither social reforms nor any other drastic changes. 2. He angered not only the radical proponents of land reform policies and economic nationalism but also the land owners, who opposed all change and disliked Madero's weakness. 3. With conservative support Victoriano Huerta overthrew Madero, who was later executed. D. Mexico again became engulfed in ruinous violence. 1. A civil war soon broke out between Huerta's forces and Francisco (Pancho) Villa in the North and Emiliano Zapata in the South. 2. Pancho Villa, an ex- bandit, organized the cowboys of the North, while Zapata, a small farmer of the South recruited an army of angry landless peasants. 3. Huerta and his army were defeated. 4. In 1914 a rich landowner, Venustiano Carranza who had supported Madero, assumed executive power. 5. In 1915 the U.S. government recognized Carranza as head of a de facto government. 6. Guerrilla raids that continued until 1917 between Carranza's forces and those of Villa and Zapata. 7. Zapata was murdered in 1919, and Pancho Villa surrendered in 1920. 8. The victors called a convention that legislated a new constitution in 1917. 9. In 1920 Carranza tried to prevent General Alvaro Obregon from succeeding him as president, but Obregon led a military coup that overthrew Carranza in 1921.

= Mexico and The Emergence of the Americas in Global Affairs 1880 – 1929 =



US Foreign Policy 1) Big Stick Policy a) Roosevelt’s new diplomacy “Speak softly and Carry a Big Stick” i) Based on Roosevelt Corollary (1) Gives US the right to intervene in the affairs of Latin America b) Meets wide spread criticism in Mexico i) Diaz begins to appeal to //other// foreign investors besides the US c) US offers Diaz a “police function” in the Dominican Republic, Puerto Rico and Cuba i) Mexico declines, but terms are still well enough that the two countries work together to prevent war between El Salvador and Guatemala in 1906 2) Moral Diplomacy a) President Wilsons policy of helping Latin American countries who were democratic and helped the US economically b) Under this policy Wilson did not recognize Huerta’s regime in Mexico i) New policy of “Watchful Waiting” ii) Begins support for Carranza, who upon gaining power will turn against America c) Pancho Villa i) Initially supported, however Villa begins staging attacks on US villages near the Mexican border ii) General Pershing and 6000 troops are sent in to capture Villa (1) Intervention in Mexico causes conflict with Carranza’s forces, nearly sparking a war (2) Conflict ends when in 1916 a constitutional government is established d) Tampico Incident i) US Soldiers arrested in Mexico. Shortly released and Mexico complies to issuing a formal apology (1) Leads to US occupation of Vera Cruz in 1914 WW1 1) Zimmerman Note a) The US intercepted German Foreign Minister Arthur Zimmermann’s letter to the German ambassador in Mexico i) Germany tries to urge Mexico into the war; promotes an attack on the US (1) US would be distracted by Mexico and hence less involved in Europe b) Note played an influential role in US involvement in WWI



Credits: Dylan: Mexico Timeline & 4 visuals Tess: Mexico in the emergence of the Americas Adonai: U.S. Timeline Neal: Major Events from 1880-1920

= Mexico: 1920-1940 =

I. Export-Import Growth 1. Agricultural production a) Plantations expand across the country b) Henequen is produced in the Yucatán and sugar is produced in central Mexico. c) Mexico did not need immigrants to work the fields, its high Indian population made up the majority of laborers. 2. Manufacturing a) Technological improvements help speed production in the factories. b) The economy increasingly became sensitive to trends in the international economy. c) Money gained from Mexican exports was used to buy up needed imports. 3. Societal impact a) High class elites remained the most prestigious, holding positions in political power. <span style="mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; msofareastfontfamily: 'Times New Roman'; msolist: Ignore;">b) The laboring classes and peasants have little influence as they were increasingly repressed. <span style="mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; msofareastfontfamily: 'Times New Roman'; msolist: Ignore;">c) The low class peoples felt used by the elites to work and produce as much as possible, with no opposition, to promote export-oriented expansion. <span style="mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; msofareastfontfamily: 'Times New Roman'; msolist: Ignore;">II. Import-Substituting Industrialization <span style="mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; msofareastfontfamily: 'Times New Roman'; msolist: Ignore;">1. Society <span style="mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; msofareastfontfamily: 'Times New Roman'; msolist: Ignore;">a) Under the ejido system, free land was distributed among the peasants. <span style="mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; msofareastfontfamily: 'Times New Roman'; msolist: Ignore;">b) Some of the first labor unions are born. <span style="mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; msofareastfontfamily: 'Times New Roman'; msolist: Ignore;">c) President Cardenas improves housing and education. <span style="mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; msofareastfontfamily: 'Times New Roman'; msolist: Ignore;">2. Economy <span style="mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; msofareastfontfamily: 'Times New Roman'; msolist: Ignore;">a) Protective tariffs placed on imports lead to the development of consumer goods industries. <span style="mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; msofareastfontfamily: 'Times New Roman'; msolist: Ignore;">b) Domestic markets increase. <span style="mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; msofareastfontfamily: 'Times New Roman'; msolist: Ignore;">c) The National Finance Bank is reorganized to support industrial expansion. <span style="mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; msofareastfontfamily: 'Times New Roman'; msolist: Ignore;">3. Infrastructure <span style="mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; msofareastfontfamily: 'Times New Roman'; msolist: Ignore;">a) The railroad and petroleum industry becomes nationalized. <span style="mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; msofareastfontfamily: 'Times New Roman'; msolist: Ignore;">b) Industrial plants develop and grow in order to stimulate economic growth. <span style="mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; msofareastfontfamily: 'Times New Roman'; msolist: Ignore;">c) Increasing industrialization brings Mexico to a more independent state.

= The Great Depression and Mexico =

I. Obregón's 1920-24 term was characterized by advances in the areas of education, the arts, labor and land reform. A. Obregón was a reformer --but not a rabid one. B. Under Carranza, workers had suffered from inflation and repression when they attempted to strike. Two-thirds of the budget was going to the army and into the pockets of generals of Carranza. C. During Obregón's administration, workers were encouraged to organize and seek higher wages. Yet he definitely preferred native capitalism to socialism and had little patience with strikes when they interfered with production. His land reform policy reflected the same make-haste-slowly mentality. D. In his four years of power Obregón distributed three million acres among 624 villages. C. Though Cárdenas pledged to compensate the oil companies for their losses, expropriation resulted in damaging repercussions. The United States cut off silver purchases from Mexico, Great Britain broke off diplomatic relations and the oil companies mounted a vast propaganda campaign to discredit the expropriation. II. The Great Depression A. The Great Depression brought Mexico a sharp drop in national income and internal demand after 1929, challenging the country's ability to fulfill its constitutional mandate to promote social equity. Still, Mexico did not feel the effects of the Great Depression as directly as some other countries did. B. In the early 1930s, manufacturing and other sectors serving the domestic economy began a slow recovery. The upturn was facilitated by several key structural reforms, notably the railroad nationalization of 1929 and 1930, the nationalization of the petroleum industry in 1938, and the acceleration of land reform, first under President Emilio Portes Gil (1928-30) and then under President Lázaro Cárdenas (1934-40) in the late 1930s. To foster industrial expansion, the administration of Manuel Ávila Camacho (1940-46) in 1941 reorganized the National Finance Bank (Nacional Financiera--Nafinsa), which had originally been created in 1934 as an investment bank. C. During the 1930s, agricultural production also rose steadily, and urban employment expanded in response to rising domestic demand. The government offered tax incentives for production directed toward the home market. Import-substitution industrialization began to make a slow advance during the 1930s, although it was not yet official government policy.





Credits Dylan: Mexico: 1920-1940 Outline Neil: The Great Depression and Mexico Outline Tess: Mexico Timeline Adonai: U.S. Timeline

<span style="mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; msofareastfontfamily: 'Times New Roman'; msolist: Ignore;">I. Import-Substituting Industrialization (1940-1950) <span style="mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; msofareastfontfamily: 'Times New Roman'; msolist: Ignore;">1. Social Consequences <span style="mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; msofareastfontfamily: 'Times New Roman'; msolist: Ignore;">a) Entrepreneurial capitalist class emerges (industrial bourgeoisie) <span style="mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; msofareastfontfamily: 'Times New Roman'; msolist: Ignore;">b) This new class was made up of different social groups, posing a challenge to the dominating ruling elite. <span style="mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; msofareastfontfamily: 'Times New Roman'; msolist: Ignore;">c) Working class gains strength. Their importance for industrial expansion helps them gain support. <span style="mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; msofareastfontfamily: 'Times New Roman'; msolist: Ignore;">2. Government & Politics <span style="mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; msofareastfontfamily: 'Times New Roman'; msolist: Ignore;">a) Industrial growth was actively promoted by the government. <span style="mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; msofareastfontfamily: 'Times New Roman'; msolist: Ignore;">b) Prices on imports and tariffs are increased to aid local firms in business competition. <span style="mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; msofareastfontfamily: 'Times New Roman'; msolist: Ignore;">c) Industrialists had the chance to gain access to power, usually by election. <span style="mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; msofareastfontfamily: 'Times New Roman'; msolist: Ignore;">d) Multiclass populist alliances emerge as Lázaro Cárdenas sought out populist solutions for Mexico.

Mexico in WWII I. Reasons for entering WWII A. On May 14, 1942, German u-boats torpedoed a Mexican merchant ship off the coast of Florida. B. Mexico asked for an explanation, having broken off diplomatic relations to Germany, Italy, and Japan after Pearl Harbor. C. Germany responded nine days later by torpedoing a second Mexican oil tanker off the Florida Keys. D. Mexico declared war against the Axis powers on May 28, 1942. II. Effects of WWII A. The economic and military links between Mexico and the United States would define relations across the Rio Grande for decades to come. B. Immigrant labor, bi-lateral trade, energy sharing and security co-operation were issues that were faced during the war. C. Highly agrarian Mexico was industrialized to accommodate for the production demands of the war. D. Mexico quickly began fulfilling its wartime commitment to America by providing tens of thousands of agricultural contract workers, tanker-loads of oil and massive amounts of other crucial war material. E. Thousands of Mexicans served with US forces during the war, including some 300 who fought as a distinct Mexican unit in the Pacific air war.





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